u shaped fire pattern

In fact, Kirk was very adamant that investigators should not conclude that the damage was from an ignitable liquid as such an interpretation was more often incorrect than otherwise (Kirk 1969). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Hicks W, Gorbett G, Hopkins M, Kennedy P, Hopkins R, Thurman T (2008) Full-Scale Single Fuel Package Fire Pattern Study. NFPA 921 states that there are three basic causes of fire patterns: heat, deposition and consumption (NFPA 2014). A clean burn area of damage was located at the area of origin only with the fire with the shortest duration of full room involvement burning. One aspect of looking at radiant heat flux is to determine if the secondary object has been raised to a critical temperature or is receiving a critical heat flux where ignition of that object is possible. Because the varying DOFD serves as the foundation for all later interpretations, ultimately leading to an origin determination, more research is needed to either demonstrate that investigators reliably identify varying DOFD or the industry needs processes that are shown to be reliable and valid (Gorbett and Chapdelaine 2014). The effects that remain after a fire are typically related to the damage resulting from the cumulative heat flux received by an exposed material. National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 822520, Maryland (USA), Stickney (1984) Recognizing Where Arson Exists. A hypothesis of pseudo chimney effect is provided. [1] In this graph the axes would be availability of intuition (being th Y-axis) and level of expertise (being the X-axis), instead of the skill level (being the Y-axis) and time (being the X-axis). magnitude of damage, type of fire effect, color, texture) and are in close proximity to each other. 2012), Testing photograph for carpet pad seam generation of pattern similar to reported ignitable liquid pour showing burning in exposed surface resulting from carpet pad shrinkage (Wood et al. Assessing the historical and current semantics of the fire investigation literature, the use of fire patterns to determine an area of origin, for purposes of the current paper, can be grouped into four areas of literature that need to be reviewed, including: Assessing the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents (i.e. Wood and gypsum wallboard (drywall) were the only materials that had sufficient literature to review in this context. As such, the recognition and identification of lines or areas of demarcation and the elevation changes with those lines of demarcation capture the essence of these shapes without using geometric shapes as universal descriptors. In fuel-controlled fires, the greatest damage within the compartment is typically found near fuel item(s) or fuel package(s) that have undergone combustion. The observable or measurable changes in or on a material as a result of exposure to fire. 2008; NFPA 2014). In 2009, Wolfe, Mealy and Gottuk conducted 15 full-scale tests with varying ventilation conditions and fuels. What are the 4 elements of extinguishment? The varying damage was given many terms by fire investigators and is reflected within the literature, including: fire patterns, burn patterns, indicators, burn indicators, fire fingerprints, fire transfer patterns and a variety of geometric shapes. These factors included the location of water application, duration of fire burning prior to arrival, duration required to extinguish the fire, location of fire department entry, method of extinguishment, use of positive pressure ventilation (i.e. Department of Fire Protection Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA, Gregory E Gorbett,Brian J Meacham,Christopher B Wood&Nicholas A Dembsey, Department of Fire Protection and Paramedicine Sciences, Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation Program, Eastern Kentucky University, 521 Lancaster Avenue, Richmond, KY, 40475, USA, FireLink, LLC, 1501 Main Street, Suite 17, Tewksbury, MA, 01876, USA, You can also search for this author in Wood stud wall with varying DOFD char damage, Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall depicted in Fig. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). National Institute of Justice, Report 60197, Washington D.C. (USA), Putorti A (2001) Flammable and Combustible Liquid Spill/Burn Pattern. 1981; Thomas 1981). Fire Safety Science 10:641654, Riahi S, Beyler C, Hartman J (2013) Wall smoke deposition from a hot smoke layer. There are a total of 17 fire effects listed in NFPA (2014) that serve as the base list of observations for fire investigators (Table1). Dissertation, The University of Edinburgh, Kahneman D, Tversky A (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. If the temperatures are high enough to cause such damage, then it is likely that a plume caused the effect. 1, 4th edn. 1997). Saito (1993); Williamson, et al. Engineering Guide, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Maryland (USA), Shanley J, Alletto W, Corry R, Herndon J, Kennedy P, Ward J (1997) The United States Fire Administration (USFA) Program for the Study of Fire Patterns. However, Schroeders study did not produce an effective means for implementing this method into a scene inspection. (1991) witnessed a 5070% decrease in peak heat flux values when small standoff distances (0.050.25m) were employed. (2008)) noted that the lines of demarcation throughout the compartment would descend in elevation dependent on the header depth and type of opening, except the line of demarcation would descend lower in corners and ascend near ventilation openings. location and elevation). Since the beginning of fire investigations, the focus on how to determine the area of origin for a fire was to try and use damage to work backwards in an attempt to recreate the development of the fire within the investigators mind. In the early days of fire investigations a common rule among fire investigators was that the visible observation of large shiny blisters of wood char indicated fast fires and that small dull blisters indicated a slower fire, which assisted investigators to conclude that a fire was incendiary or not (Boudreau et al. These results were found to be statistically significant using a chi square distribution yielding a p-value of 0.006. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of alligatoring as one of the most common methods of establishing arson. The mixing of the air and UHCs has been shown to occur at the opening, along the gravity flow, around objects within the flow and opposite the opening along walls, specifically for doors (Abib and Jaluria 1992a, b; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). The next identified process was promulgated by John Kennedy in 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory (Kennedy 1959). 1980; Keith and Smith 1984; King 1985; Ettling 1990). The concept of fire patterns for this review has been broken into four components that better assist in evaluating their effectiveness in determining an area of origin. [2] However, all of this is dependent on the burning regime and where combustion is actually taking place at the point in time during the fire when the fuel was ignited. He found that the damage from the flame plume would extend approximately the width of the fuel for 100kW fires that did not have a ceiling jet form and 3 times the width of the fuel with 300kW fires that did have flame extension under the ceiling. The damage cues evaluated for upper layer-generated damage included: Cue 1-damage high in elevation on wall surfaces. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Gottuk D, White D (2008) Liquid Fuel Fires. The fire patterns are evaluated and classified as to the likelihood of the causal link to the fire dynamics variables or other background factors that generated the damage. Some of these indicators used were alligatoring, crazing of glass, depth of char, lines of demarcation, sagged furniture springs and spalled concrete. Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 3 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by upper layer. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, MATH Cue 2-increased magnitude of damage near the fuel item. The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. When the flame plume has not intersected the ceiling, heat fluxes along the ceiling surface near the centerline of a plume have been recorded to range between 80 and 100kW/m2 within 01m radial distance, while heat fluxes between 1.0 and 1.6m radial distances ranges between 10 and 70kW/m2 (Dillon 1998; Lattimer and Sorathia 2003). The results confirmed that the use of this method was appropriate for these three test fires (Shanley et al. Proper fire investigation should determine the fire cause, the cause of the resulting property damage and most importantly, the cause of bodily injury or loss of life to civilians and firefighters. Each fire pattern study has the three most common flashover correlations summarized within Additional file 1. The cumulative heat exposure consists of the duration and varying intensity of heat exposure to the materials. A substantial degree of damage is often times found directly adjacent to or opposite of window and door openings. (2013) identified hose spray from suppression efforts as washing off areas of soot and ash from the gypsum wallboard, leaving behind a white area. Cue 6-sharp/distinct lines of demarcation near or appear to be emanating from the fuel item. Several researchers have identified significant changes in damage around drywall seams (Claflin 2014; Gorbett et al. Shanley et al. A common maximum recorded heat flux in a postflashover compartment fire is 170kW/m2 (NFPA 2014). Elsevier, Massachusetts (USA), Howard R (1966) Decision Analysis: Applied Decision Theory. Fire effects are the bases for the varying DOFD that was discussed in the previous section. One of the most important findings is that combustion was found to occur detached from fuel items and found to burn nearest the open ventilation source if the global equivalence ratio () in the fire room becomes larger than unity, typically between 1.2 and 1.6 depending on temperature (Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007). The developing fire and the variables influencing the fire scenario control heat transfer in a compartment, including the location, the intensity and duration of the heat transfer. The combustion of a fuel through diffusion flames is inherently oxygen limited by the diffusion reaction and the availability of only 21% of oxygen in air in well-ventilated fires. Several studies concerning ventilation-controlled fires throughout the years have introduced a concept of a ventilation factor ($ {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} $) and illustrated the importance of ventilation openings on a fires growth by analyzing the size of ventilation openings, locations of these openings within the compartment and the shear mixing that occurs at the interface of the opening (Kawagoe 1958; Thomas and Heslden 1972; Harmathy 1972; Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007; Sugawa et al. hbbd``b`$;` X| b tqKwH a:H,b`bdc`$8+@ 1 Often times, positive-pressure ventilation, or mechanically induced ventilation, through the use of a fan is employed in conjunction with fire suppression activities. This was observed in rooms, which had flashover conditions where clean burn areas were produced under windows away from the origin. Also, damage may be found near the unsealed seams of drywall sections due to infiltrating air. This section focuses on the literature that exists for fire patterns. Carman (2008) noted similar areas of damage of great magnitude directly opposite door openings and within the inflow of the air from this door. The compartments were 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a single door opening 3ft by 6ft-10in. 2010). Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Claflin P (2014) Effects of Multiple Ventilation Openings on a Post-Flashover Compartment Fire. Consequently, the damage expected in a fuel-controlled state is generally less-severe until the ventilation begins deteriorating, nearing the cross over to ventilation-controlled. 12). In addition, this study identified that greater damage (clean burn) occurred at the seams between drywall sections within their tests when they were not covered with tape and mud, due to leakage through the unsealed openings. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). The energy generated by the fire and therefore the temperatures and layer depth of the upper layer vary as a function of time (Walton and Thomas 2008). The importance of fire patterns is clearly reiterated in Section 6.1.1 by stating the major objective of any fire scene examination is to collect data as required by the scientific method. It was once thought that narrow V-patterns were produced by a fast developing fire and wide V-patterns were produced by a slow developing fire (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). These myths have been dispelled by several studies, but their influence on using the geometric shapes as descriptors has justifiably persisted (NFPA 2014; Shanley et al. 1977). National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2014) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Test Data from Published Full-Scale Fire Pattern Tests and Statistics for Fire Pattern Generation. The collection of high temperature gases within a compartment is also a source of heat flux that can cause damage. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 63:2440, Utiskul Y (2007) Theoretical and Experimental Study on Fully-Developed Compartment Fires. The average velocity of natural buoyancy driven flows or natural ventilation through the bottom of a door during ventilation-controlled conditions is approximately 1.52.0m/s (3.44.4 mph) (Kerber 2010; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). This study focused on the impact of ventilation on fire patterns and the ability of fire investigators to use fire patterns to determine the quadrant of the room where the fire began. The inverted cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top. Generally, these texts encouraged investigators to visibly identify which side of a content item, wall, or structural member may have been more affected by heat. The only procedural aspect that NFPA 921 provides for fire pattern use for origin determination is the heat and flame vector analysis (NFPA 2014). Later the term morphed into heat shadowing, which was first defined as the effect of an object blocking the convected or radiated travel of heat and flame from its source to the particular surface material which is under examination (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Fire patterns are defined as the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects (NFPA 2014). This change in ventilation is typically done during ventilation-controlled conditions, which causes the HRR to increase within the compartment and results in combustion wherever the mixture of UHCs and oxygen is sufficient and that the mixture be at a sufficient temperature to initiate combustion (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009; Kerber and Walton 2005). 4. A two-dimensional fire pattern is expected to form on the vertical surface interface (i.e. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Natural Convection in Enclosures, HTD 192:7381, Babrauskas V (1980) Estimating room flashover potential. 2010). Other penetration patterns have arisen, which dealt more with determining the direction of fire spread from top down or bottom up. The damage observed to wall, ceiling and content surfaces is an artifact of the fire dynamics for that fire. 2003). The characteristics distilled from the literature are that plume-generated patterns have areas of greater magnitude of damage in relation to the surrounding areas and because of this, the lines of demarcation between these areas are described as clear or sharp. The temperature and resultant heat flux decreases with increasing radial distance from the plume centerline. smoke, aerosols). An upholstered sofa and upholstered chair were located in adjacent corners across the room from each other with a coffee table in between. The fire origin will ultimately be connected to a plume generated fire pattern. The first reference that can be identified related to rejecting this misconception was a discussion by DeHaan (1983). doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12616, Gottuk D (1992) The Generation of Carbon Monoxide in Compartment Fires. Therefore, the walls, ceiling and floor surfaces are now receiving an elevated heat flux, in addition to the already burning fuel receiving greater feedback, increasing its own HRR and other fuels becoming involved. The areas of damage and boundaries of those areas are often referred to as areas and lines of demarcation. The characteristics of damage that have been reported in the literature to assist investigators in determining the cause of the fire pattern will be evaluated here. The researchers discuss that similar truncated cone patterns were identified in the first eight tests (Gorbett et al. Consumption is a function of heat transfer and the material properties. 1997). In 2011 three test fires were conducted that varied between single and multiple ventilation openings (Claflin 2014). This fire pattern has been proposed to indicate a fuel package that has reached a HRR sufficient to create a flame plume that reaches the horizontal surface (i.e. Both compartments were furnished similarly with a sofa located under the open window, a sofa located along the wall next to the door and a kitchen table in the center of the compartment. Ultimately, the locations of damage and fire patterns are compared to the causal factors from the physics of the fire, alternative causes and background information. Dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Gorbett G, Chapdelaine W (2014) Scientific Method Use, Application and Gap Analysis for Origin Determination. Heat shadowing and protected areas were shown to assist investigators in determining that the fire did not originate behind certain contents (Shanley et al. For example, an investigator would assign a number 5 char level to a piece of wood that had the number of cracks occurring up to 2 per centimeter with widths approximately the thickness of a five-cent piece (Keith and Smith 1984). Despite this warning, several textbooks and journal articles discuss that an investigator can prescribe a 45min duration of burning for every 1-inch of char depth (Stickney 1984; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Swab 1985). Andrew Cox (2013) argues that both the generic causal factors and the contextual circumstances should be considered when interpreting the cause of the damage. Decision support frameworks are derived from the field of decision analysis, as well as from uncertainty analysis and risk analysis. V-patterns, spalling, distorted bulbs, depth of. A fundamental principle of decision analysis is that people do not always have all the data or information needed to make a good decision. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, Quincy, MA, Hicks W, Gorbett G, Kennedy P, Hopkins R, Abney W (2006) Advanced Fire Pattern Research Project. The sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. Therefore, it is expected that soot deposition on wall surfaces to be greatest in thickness and higher in elevation closer to the room of origin and lesser in thickness and lower in elevation as one moves away from the room of origin. Two tests also had a window that measured 3ft by 4ft in height (0.91m1.22m) with a 2ft, 6in. The elements of the fire pattern definition are further explained here: distinct area of damage or cluster of fire effects the area of damage must be clearly distinguishable from other areas of damage through the identification of line(s) of demarcation. Cue 4-width of base of damage is approximately the width of the fuel item and not greater than two times the width of the fuel item. Many of the first texts on fire investigation discussed the concept of low burning and the importance of evaluating the floor for fire patterns (Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). The surface then redirects the buoyant flow and its momentum across the bottom of the ceiling creating a ceiling jet, which begins to descend from the ceiling as an upper layer (Hicks et al. Director, Fire Investigation Specialist. This pattern is not an accurate indicator of an accelerant, or arson. 923, Tinsley A, Gorbett G (2013) Fire Investigation Origin Determination Survey. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Mann, Putaansuu (2010) Studies of the Dehydration/Calcination of Gypsum Wall Board. Therefore, determining if and when the fire transitions from a fuel-controlled to a ventilation-controlled condition is an important distinction. NFPA 921 (2014) discusses that plume-generated patterns typically have characteristics associated with geometric shapes. Typically, investigators look at the face of the wallboard and make a visible determination of the DOFD. First Asian Conference on Fire Science and Technology, China, Quintiere J (1995) Compartment Fire Modeling. Combustion Science and Technology 39:195214, Dillon S (1998) Analysis of the ISO 9705 Room/Corner Test: Simulations, Correlations and Heat Flux Measurements. Of course, apex is actually the antonym of the word desired here. Poster presented at the International Association of Arson Investigators Annual Training Conference, Florida (USA), Barracato J (1979) Fireis it arson? In 1997, a formal heat and flame vector analysis was conducted with three of the USFA fire pattern tests. hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson with the visible appearance of char being one of the predominant misconceptions (Boudreau et al. 2003). Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. Such data include the patterns produced by the fire (NFPA 2014). In the face of non-systematized approaches to solving complex problems, the current state of fire investigation, many other professions have turned to decision support frameworks, tools or methods. He succinctly describes his process as direction of spread of the fire will be notedit will be upward, partially lateral, rarely downward, but its direction will indicate the general region of origin when properly interpreted. Mann and Putaansuu (2010) exposed samples of gypsum wallboard to three levels of heat flux for three different durations and noted visible changes, as well as depth of calcination changes with a variety of probing instruments. The ULG patterns are characterized by level lines of demarcation (or lines with similar elevation) with a generally uniform degree of damage (NFPA 2014). Fire pattern that resembles a U or V shape and indicates the direction of fire progression in that area. 2003). Shanley et al. They also suggested that the level of heat lines on the walls may be traced back from the termination point toward the beginningordinarily they will be lower and lower on the walls as you approach the areas where the greatest heat was generated (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Characteristics of the damage linked with ventilation-generated patterns during ventilation-controlled conditions are large surface areas and increased magnitude of damage, angled lines of demarcation located around the ventilation opening or directly opposite of a door opening. Match. 2013). Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy, Kennedy (1985) Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation. fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; and. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Several studies noted areas of clean burn and damage of great magnitude occurring around contents and to wall surfaces within this airflow and to wall surfaces directly opposite of the opening during ventilation-controlled conditions (Custer and Wright 1984; Shanley et al. A series of nine full-scale studies, funded by the National Institute of Justice, were conducted with ignitable liquid fuel spilled on carpeted and vinyl flooring with varying ventilation scenarios (Mealy et al. The first published fire pattern tests was in 1984 (Custer and Wright 1984). As mentioned before, if the magnitude of damage is changing, but the lines of demarcation are related, then a pattern may still exist. Various types of fire patterns, such as; "V-shaped", "hour-glass", and "inverted cone", have come from common observation at actual fire scenes. As these problems began to be studied, approaches were developed to help individuals and organizations identify the components of a good decision, how to structure the decision problem and how to treat the associated uncertainty (Clemen and Reilly 2001; Donegan 2008; Kahneman and Tversky 1974; Kleindorfer et al. They confirmed that 6.6lbf (3kgf) of force was best at matching the Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) chemical analysis of dehydration found in the Mann and Putaansuu study (2010). 2, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th edn. The third part of the review focuses on the possible causal factors influencing the location and magnitude of damage. Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. In 2003, ten full-scale test burns were performed in a ISO 9705 room 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a primary focus on examining television sets and electronic appliances exposed to a full-scale room fire (Hoffmann et al. NFPA 921s original publication followed this trend and warned, irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings cannot always be reliably identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation alone (NFPA 1992). Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 19:127133, Crofton, MD, DeHaan J, Icove D (2011) Kirks Fire Investigation. Proceedings of the Society of Air Safety Investigators Annual Seminar, Beyler C (1986) Fire plumes and ceiling jets. Fire Safety Journal 11:5375, London (UK), Beyler C (2009) Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham. Chemical changes include the decomposition/pyrolysis, dehydration, or changes in color. 2008). Photograph of a Conical-Shaped Fire Pattern along a concrete block wall (fire origin was located under the stack of wooden pallets-fire test conducted at EKU by author). Specifically, the hypothesis that carpet pad seams could mimic the floor fire patterns previously attributed to ignitable liquid pours was examined. Proceedings of the 17th International Systems Safety Conference, Unionville, VA, Ettling B (1990) The Significance of Alligatoring of Wood Char. Grant No. Later in a fires development, an upper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces. The researchers report negligible winds on the day of the tests. These studies focused on fire pattern reproducibility, pattern persistence through flashover, the use of fire patterns in origin determination and the influence of initial, low HRR fuel on fire pattern production. Clean burn damage located on the wall opposite of the door opening (not at the area of origin) extended from the floor to the ceiling and had an approximate 6-foot base. Most investigators in the field do not cut out pieces of the wallboard to visibly identify damage, nor do they perform depth surveys using a depth tool. International Association of Arson Investigators 61:3844, Crofton, MD, McCaffrey B, Quintiere J (1977) Buoyancy-driven counter-current flows generated by a fire source. In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. Or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the face of most... A fundamental principle of decision analysis: Applied decision Theory support frameworks are derived from origin. 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And State University, Gottuk D, White D ( 2008 ) Liquid fuel fires of high temperature within... The researchers discuss that similar truncated cone patterns were identified in the first reference that can be identified related rejecting... Or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top associated with this review paper the! Appropriate for these three test fires ( Shanley et al cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle the. ( 0.91m1.22m ) with a coffee table in between received by an exposed material include... Winds on the vertical surface interface ( i.e an accurate indicator of an,... V ( 1980 ) Estimating room flashover potential drywall seams ( Claflin 2014 ; et. Gases within a Compartment is also a source of heat transfer and the material.! Color, texture ) and are in close proximity to each other with a coffee table in between, changes! 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